FinTech adoption and financial inclusion: an integrated model for rural Thailand

Purpose Financial technology (FinTech) has transformed financial services globally contributing to sustainable economic development. However, financial exclusion persists among rural populations, raising questions about the factors that determine FinTech adoption in remote areas. This study develops and empirically validates an integrated theoretical framework combining the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), and Technology Readiness Index (TRI) to examine the factors influencing FinTech adoption. Existing studies have largely applied these theories independently or through partial integration, limiting understanding of the full causal chain from personality characteristics and technology perceptions to intention and actual adoption, especially in rural Thailand. Design/methodology/approach Survey data were collected from 632 rural dwellers across four provinces in Southern and Northeastern Thailand. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling were employed to test the integrated model. Harman's single-factor test and the common latent factor approach were employed to evaluate common method bias (CMB). Findings The findings reveal that behavioural intention is the primary driver of FinTech adoption, while attitude exerts a positive indirect influence that is fully mediated by intention. Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use exert both direct and indirect effects on intention to adopt FinTech services. Optimism positively shapes both perceptions, whereas innovativeness unexpectedly exerts negative effects, a finding explained by the elevated expectations of technology-aware users. Discomfort impairs perceived ease of use but not perceived usefulness; insecurity is not significant among users conducting basic transactions. Practical implications The findings provide policymakers and financial institutions with evidence-based strategies to accelerate adoption. Interventions should strengthen behavioural intention by integrating mobile banking into agricultural value chains, reinforce positive attitudes through incentive programmes and robust security governance, and mitigate discomfort via intuitive interface design and on-site demonstrations. These measures are essential for promoting mobile banking adoption in rural areas, thereby advancing financial inclusion and supporting rural development. Originality/value This study advances the FinTech adoption literature. First, it develops an integrated TPB-TAM-TRI causal framework, offering a more comprehensive explanation of adoption behaviour than a single theory. Second, it extends the TAM by showing that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use influence intention through direct and indirect pathways, reconciling inconsistent findings on attitude's mediating role. Third, it analyses the separate dimensions of technology readiness, providing nuanced insights into facilitators and inhibitors. Fourth, by focusing on rural Thailand, it extends adoption research into an underexplored developing-economy context. This integrated approach offers valuable insights for financial institutions seeking to promote mobile banking adoption in rural areas.