Electrification and the closing of the gender gap in literacy in rural Iran

The rapid expansion of electricity to rural Iran following the 1979 Islamic Revolution provides a unique opportunity to study the impact of infrastructure on women's empowerment. Using a large panel of villages observed in three consecutive censuses (1986, 1996, 2006) and administrative records on electrification, we apply difference-in-differences to estimate the effect of electrification on the gender literacy gap. Our estimates suggest that between 1986 and 1996, electrification accounted for about 78 percent of the observed decline. Evidence points to two channels: the expansion of educational infrastructure and the diffusion of labor-saving appliances, particularly refrigerators. These gains occurred while the state was actively reinforcing traditional gender roles, underscoring the power of development policy to advance women's education even in contexts where laws and norms restrict their autonomy.