Beyond the West: social media polarization and political realignment in Pakistan

The rise of ideological divides in public discourse has received considerable attention in recent years. However, much of this research focused on Western democracies, limiting our understanding of how polarization unfolds in different institutional and cultural contexts –particularly in the Global South. This study examines the evolution of political polarization in Pakistan, a strategically significant but politically unstable democracy characterized by a distinct party system, a contested media environment, and persistent turbulence. Using Twitter (now X) data from 2018 to 2022, we trace shifts in political dynamics across pivotal moments of change. Our analysis focuses on the behavior and audiences of politicians from major parties, revealing consistent online activity and a particularly strong presence from opposition actors. We uncover patterns of audience realignment, including increasing convergence among opposition factions and visible shifts in individual political affiliations. By quantifying homophily and cross-party interactions, we show how online networks reflect broader structural transformations in the political landscape. By extending polarization research to an understudied yet revealing setting, this study highlights the value of social media data not only for tracking macro-level trends but also for uncovering granular political transitions. In doing so, it offers new insights for comparative research on polarization beyond Western contexts.