Recent Advances in Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in Vegetable Oilseeds and Oils: An Update on Toxicity, Formation, Determination, Influence Factors and Mitigation Strategies

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are hazardous compounds formed via Maillard reaction and pyrolysis during thermal processing of protein-rich foods. While widely studied in animal-derived foods, HAAs in vegetable oilseeds and oils remain underinvestigated. Global expansion of the vegetable oilseed market, coupled with the widespread use of high-temperature roasting (160–260°C) to enhance oil yield and flavor, raises concerns over HAA formation as an emerging food safety issue. This review provides a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of HAAs in vegetable oilseeds and oils, encompassing their structural classification, toxicological profiles, formation mechanisms, and analytical determination methods. Contamination levels across various oilseeds and oil products are systematically evaluated, identifying β‑carboline HAAs as the predominant forms. Key factors influencing HAA formation, such as chemical composition and processing conditions, are critically examined. Importantly, mitigation strategies are proposed, including selection of oilseed varieties, optimization of heating parameters, addition of antioxidants, and improvements in extraction and refining processes. Research gaps and future outlooks are also highlighted to guide safer vegetable oilseed production with minimized HAA levels. This review serves as a valuable reference for researchers, food processors, and regulatory authorities aiming to advance the safety and sustainable development of the vegetable oilseed industry.