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Experimental protocols used to study the route(s) of phloem loading in source leaves are evaluated; they include the analysis of plasmodesmatal ultrastructure and distribution, mobile compounds in the free space, loading patterns of exogenous sugars, the site of sugar synthesis, and dye coupling. All these methods have drawbacks. There are indications that some plants, especially those that translocate the raffinose series of sugars, load by a symplastic (through plasmodesmata) pathway, but the evidence is weak.
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Turgeon et al. (1991) studied this question.
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