Beyond access: Evaluating adoption and utilisation of solar energy in unserved and underserved communities in Northern Nigeria

Expanding electricity access through decentralised renewable energy systems has become a central strategy for achieving universal energy access in developing countries. However, evaluations of decentralised rural electrification have largely focused on infrastructure deployment and electricity access, with limited attention to what occurs after electricity becomes available. This study demonstrates that evaluating decentralised rural electrification requires moving beyond conventional measures of electricity access to consider whether available energy services are subsequently adopted and effectively utilised. Accordingly, a post-access analytical perspective was adopted to evaluate the adoption and utilisation of decentralised solar energy technologies among solar energy users in Rural Electrification Agency (REA)-supported unserved and underserved communities in Northern Nigeria. A cross-sectional community-based survey was conducted among 484 solar energy users across 38 REA-supported intervention communities in six northern Nigerian states. A Probit regression model was employed to identify the factors associated with solar energy adoption, while descriptive statistics were used to assess sectoral utilisation patterns. The results show that adoption was significantly associated with knowledge of solar energy, training, affordability, occupation, duration and intensity of use, perceived importance of solar energy, and sources of information, whereas education level and geographical location were not independently associated with adoption. Solar energy was utilised across residential, commercial, social, industrial, and institutional sectors, with commercial and residential activities accounting for the largest share of utilisation. Solar energy was utilised across residential, commercial, social, industrial, and institutional sectors, with commercial and residential activities accounting for the largest share of utilisation, including applications such as small business operations ranging from mobile phone charging, barbing, cold storage, to irrigation. By integrating technology adoption and utilisation within a single post-access analytical perspective, this study provides a more comprehensive framework for evaluating the effectiveness of decentralised rural electrification programmes. The findings offer practical evidence to support policymakers and programme implementers in strengthening the design, monitoring, and long-term sustainability of decentralised rural electrification interventions in Nigeria and other developing countries.