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Mechanical forces can be converted into electrical signal frequencies at high linearity and precision over a seven-decade range by use of a diode-pumped Nd:YAG laser and a mixing photodiode. Active signal stabilization of the laser is not required. The observed errors (drift, creep, and hysteresis) are at the lower measuring limit. Diode-pumped Nd:YAG technology offers the chance to realize miniaturized high-accuracy sensors for force and acceleration.
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Holzapfel et al. (1993) studied this question.
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