Degradation rates and pathways of ciprofloxacin with a composite of β-Ga 2 O 3 nanoparticles and nanocellulose hydrolyzed from Azanza garckeana fruit fibers

The photocatalytic degradation of Ciprofloxacin (CIP) was evaluated under ultraviolet photo irradiation and a composite of β-Ga2O3 with nanocellulose citrate-capped fibers (CNCFs) at an 80:20 weight ratio (β-Ga2O3/20%CNCFs). At a dosage of 2 mg photocatalyst and optimized conditions, the CIP degradation rate (k = 2.88 (±0.05) × 10−2 min−1) was 67.4% faster for the β-Ga2O3/20%CNCFs composite than 1.72 (±0.04) × 10−2 min−1 (for β-Ga2O3). CIP photocatalytic degradation trends in radical scavenger solutions pointed to OH•, O2•– and h+ as the major photochemically generated radicals/agents for the CIP degradation. The β-Ga2O3/20%CNCFs catalyst retained its activity beyond the 6th cycle with only an 8% dip, demonstrating sustained reusability and antifouling stability of its active sites. Mass spectroscopic product analysis confirmed the formation of low molecular and readily biodegradable intermediates that included quinolone carboxylic acids, aliphatic monocarboxylic acids, aliphatic diketo-carboxylic acids, and partial mineralization of CIP to form dissolved carbon dioxide.