Hydrocarbons and carbon cannot normally be distinguished by core x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Functionalized carbon can be identified by chemical shifts in the C 1s and other core region, but the results are not always unambiguous. A combination of valence band x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy interpreted by Xα calculations can be used to obtain more chemical information. Thus one can distinguish between different hydrocarbons even though the C 1s region is identical. A greater sensitivity to chemical functionality can be obtained for functionalized carbon (such as oxidized carbon). Examples will be provided for oxidized carbon fiber surfaces and for various types of polymer.
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Peter M. A. Sherwood (1992) studied this question.