From vulnerability to resilience: coping and adaptive strategies against foot-and-mouth disease among smallholder beef cattle farmers in South Africa

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) poses significant challenges beyond animal health, undermining household income, food security, and livelihoods. These impacts are critical to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1 and 2 and the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program 2026–2035, which emphasize poverty reduction, food security, and resilient agricultural systems. This study assesses the resilience of smallholder livestock farmers to FMD and examines the factors associated with resilience in Mtubatuba Local Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Using cross-sectional data from 135 smallholder livestock farmers, the study constructs a Foot-and-Mouth Disease Resilience Index (FMDRI) based on livestock survival and mortality outcomes. It analyses its determinants using a fractional logit and Tobit regression models. The results indicate that resilience to FMD is generally low, with 71% farmers classified as less resilient. Empirical findings show that herd size, participation in vaccination programs, and tertiary education enhance FMD resilience, while access to veterinary and extension services, asset size, and social media groups are negatively associated with FMD resilience. The study underscores the need to strengthen resilience to FMD through a policy shift towards livestock-specific interventions, including improved vaccination coverage, enhanced effectiveness of veterinary and extension services, investments in biosecurity and disease prevention systems, and appropriate social media education on FMD.