Linking immersion to learning outcomes: examining the Cognitive-Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) in a literary and cultural EFL environment

Although immersive virtual reality (iVR) has been widely recognized for its potential to enhance learner engagement, the relationship between immersive experiences and actual learning outcomes remains unclear. Based on the Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL), this exploratory study examines EFL learners’ experiences with literary and cultural learning in iVR. The participants explored Victorian London through iVR and completed pre- and post-tests, a survey, reflection papers, and follow-up interviews. Quantitative results showed significant learning gains and positive perceptions of immersion, presence, interest, motivation, and self-regulation. PROCESS Macro analysis further revealed strong relationships among technological factors, iVR affordances, and cognitive-affective factors. However, these variables showed only weak relationships with actual learning gains, and perceived learning was not significantly associated with objective learning outcomes. To explain this discrepancy, qualitative analysis was conducted. The findings revealed that the key difference was not whether learners were engaged, but what their engagement was directed toward. While some students focused primarily on the experiential and sensory qualities of iVR, other students were more likely to monitor comprehension and evaluate their understanding of the narrative. Based on these findings, the study suggests that the effectiveness of iVR in literary and cultural learning depends not only on creating immersive experiences but also on supporting learners in transforming immersion into meaningful narrative understanding.