A framework for spatial modelling of potentials for vegetation development and associated land use in heterogeneous landscapes

Understanding spatial variation in ecological opportunity is fundamental to predicting vegetation development and informing land-use planning, yet existing geoecological models are often constrained by categorical inputs, genesis-based classifications and dependence on current land use and vegetation patterns. Here we present a holistic, unsupervised framework for delineating geoecological land units and gradients using continuous environmental variables selected for high temporal permanence. The method integrates topographic, pedological, and hydrological factors through a grouped principal component analysis followed by multivariate clustering, enabling balanced representation of interacting ecological factors without predefined hierarchies. Applied at 10 m resolution in Eastern Denmark, the model identifies 16 geotope categories representing discrete, functional land unit types for vegetation development. Statistical validation shows that multivariate heterogeneity is concentrated at geotope boundaries, while interiors are internally more homogeneous. This indicates a robust delineation of patch–gradient landscape structure and validates the model design. The framework provides a scalable approach for mapping geoecological potentials relevant to conservation planning, vegetation modelling, land suitability assessment, opportunity mapping and land system analysis.