The influence of ice topography and conditioning on elastomer–ice friction

Elastomer friction on ice originates from interfacial interactions, viscoelastic hysteresis within the elastomer, and temperature-driven modifications of the ice surface. Yet, their relative contributions to the total frictional performance remain challenging to control or separate experimentally. This study systematically investigates elastomer−ice interactions using flat and engineered unidirectional periodic ice topographies (with a dominant wavelength of 1.5 mm) evaluated parallel and perpendicular to the sliding direction under identical testing conditions ( p ≈ 0.2 MPa, v = 0.3 ms −1 , T = −3 °C). Five elastomers with a Shore A hardness ranging from ~50 to ~90 were examined over 200 sliding cycles to investigate the roles of elastomer properties, surface structuring, and repetition. The pre-defined ice structures were fabricated via silicone molding combined with a bottom-up freezing technique, enabling controlled modulation of surface topography. The comparison of the engineered surfaces selectively amplified either contact area-dominated or deformation-dominated friction mechanisms. Depending on the elastomer's properties (hardness and glass transition temperature), the friction coefficient was systematically enhanced through increased contact area or elevated viscoelastic excitation. Across all elastomer–surface combinations, the friction coefficient exhibited a pronounced exponential decay with repeated sliding. The results indicate that the elastomer- and ice-type–dependent decay is governed primarily by thermal effects. These results establish controlled surface structuring as a tool to bias dominant friction mechanisms and clarify the origin of friction decay in elastomer–ice interactions under repeated testing.