The initial pathways of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) into Europe based on AMS dates and stable carbon isotope data

Research on broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum L.) has significantly improved our understanding of its introduction and dispersal across Europe during the second millennium BCE. However, its arrival into regions such as Southeastern Europe and Anatolia remains poorly understood. In the present study, we combine directly AMS-dated archaeobotanical millet grains with published stable carbon isotope data to investigate the chronology and dispersal routes of millet into Europe. The study integrates 70 radiocarbon dates obtained from charred millet grains, including 16 newly generated AMS dates, and re-evaluates previously published data using Bayesian chronological modeling. An extensive stable carbon isotopic dataset from human and animal remains is integrated in this review. The results confirm that the earliest secure evidence for millet in Europe currently derives from the western Pontic Steppe, while subsequent appearances are synchronously documented in the Carpathian Basin, Southeastern Europe, and the Caucasus. In contrast, archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence from Anatolia consistently supports a later introduction of millet in this region. These results reveal millet dispersal pathways into Europe and highlight the importance of direct radiocarbon dating and interdisciplinary approaches to study prehistoric crop dispersal and dietary practices.