Tools and Techniques for Studying Biofilms in Industrial Water Systems: A Critical Review

Microbial biofilms pose persistent challenges in industrial water systems due to their contribution to biofouling, biocorrosion, and reduced operational efficiency. Advances in in vitro biofilm models, ranging from static microtiter plate assays to dynamic systems such as flow cells and microfluidic platforms, have enabled detailed investigation of biofilm structure, physiology, and antimicrobial tolerance towards the management of biofilms in varied systems. In parallel, microscopy, imaging technologies, spectroscopy, and molecular tools provide complementary insights into biofilm composition, heterogeneity, and ecological function. Despite widespread use of these tools in medical and environmental microbiology, their application to industrial water systems remains uneven. This review critically evaluates in vitro biofilm growth models and characterization techniques with specific emphasis on their relevance, strengths, and limitations in the context of industrial water systems. We highlight knowledge gaps and methodological considerations essential for improving biofilm monitoring and control strategies in these engineered environments.