Nanoparticle-Based Targeted Drug-Delivery Systems for Cardiomyopathy: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Advances

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  Figure 1. Possible functional impairments and mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of various cardiomyopathies. When the body is exposed to external factors such as infection or poisoning, an inflammatory response is triggered. This activates NLRP3, which, in turn, leads to apoptosis and elevated levels of inflammatory mediators such as interleukins in the body. At the same time, the body’s antioxidant system becomes unbalanced, and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species causes oxidative stress that disrupts cellular function, induces endoplasmic reticulum stress, and leads to an imbalance in calcium ion homeostasis, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction. RTK, receptor tyrosine kinase; GTP, guanosine triphosphate; GDP, guanosine diphosphate; RAS, rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog; RAS- GTP, ras-related gtp-binding proteins; RAF, rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma; MEK, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2; Smad2,sma- and mad-related protein 2; Smad3, sma- and mad-related protein 3; Smad4, sma- and mad-related protein 4; FAS, fas cell surface…

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  Figure 2. Classification and Delivery of Nanoparticles. (A) Classification of organic and inorganic nanoparticles. (B) Major ligands carried by nanoparticles. (C) Nanoparticles can be delivered to target sites via various routes of administration, including oral, gastric, or injection. (D) Nanoparticles are transported to damaged sites via active or passive transport. PLGA, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); GPCR, g protein–coupled receptor.

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  Figure 3. Different nanoparticles can intervene in cardiomyopathy through different mechanisms. PLGA, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); CK-MB, creatine kinase mb isoenzyme; OS, oxidative stress; mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; TRB2, t-box transcription factor 2; TGF-β,transforming growth factor beta; IL-1,interleukin-1; IL-6,interleukin-6; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; tTA,tetracycline-controlled transactivator; TRE, tetracycline response element; Wnt, wingless-related integration site; Th17, t helper 17 cells; Smad3, sma- and mad-related protein 3; TGF-β, transforming growth factor beta; NF-kB, nuclear factor kappa B; NLRP3, nlr family pyrin domain containing 3; Fas, fas cell surface death receptor; Caspase-3, cysteine-aspartate protease 3; Mn-SOD, manganese superoxide dismutase.