Laser Additive Manufacturing of Copper and Its Alloys: Challenges, Process Innovations, and Future Perspectives

Copper possesses exceptional thermal and electrical conductivity, making it valuable in applications ranging from electronics and heat exchangers to aerospace and energy systems. However, its high reflectivity, thermal conductivity, and susceptibility to oxidation present significant challenges in laser additive manufacturing (AM). This review presents a comprehensive overview of the current state of laser AM of copper and copper alloys, with a focus on laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and laser directed energy deposition (LDED) techniques. The key processing challenges are outlined, including limited laser absorption with infrared lasers, melt pool instability, and porosity formation. Strategies to enhance the processability of copper and its alloys are critically reviewed, including process parameter optimization, material modifications, and the use of alternative laser sources such as green and blue lasers. The role of process monitoring is also discussed as a pathway to ensure process stability and repeatability. The review further highlights recent applications of copper AM and identifies the transition from density-driven optimization to function-oriented qualification as a key requirement for industrial implementation.