Addressing Heat Stress in Arid, High-Visitor Cities with a Focus on Makkah

Makkah faces substantial heat-stress challenges associated with extreme temperatures, dense urban form, and the large numbers of pilgrims present during Hajj and Umrah, creating important public health concerns. Recent heat-related fatalities highlight the need for complementary strategies that address outdoor as well as indoor heat exposure, alongside conventional cooling approaches such as air conditioning. This article examines the potential role of nature-based and complementary engineered interventions in mitigating urban heat stress in Makkah, focusing on afforestation, urban greening, and the possible use of artificial water bodies, contingent on sustainable water management. Drawing on case studies and published evidence from arid and heat-prone regions, including China, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the wider Middle East, we summarize reported cooling effects, implementation experience, and feasibility considerations and assess their potential relevance to Makkah. The perspective highlights critical challenges related to water scarcity, spatial constraints, ecological impacts, and governance, while proposing phased implementation pathways that could be evaluated incrementally. If carefully designed and integrated with urban planning and climate-adaptation strategies, nature-based and complementary interventions could potentially reduce human heat stress, reduce cooling demand, and strengthen climate resilience in Makkah. However, their effectiveness, water requirements, environmental impacts, and scalability require evaluation under Makkah-specific environmental and operational conditions.