The multifaceted role of atomic force microscopy in bacteriology

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has become a powerful tool to provide nanoscale insights into the spatial organization, biomechanics, and intermolecular interactions of the cell envelopes of living bacteria in real time and under near-native conditions. Focusing on recent literature, we discuss how AFM has advanced our understanding of Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and mycobacterial cell envelope architectures, as well as the mechanisms of action of established and novel antimicrobials. We also summarize how AFM can be used to probe the adhesion, virulence, and immune evasion of pathogens through single-molecule and single-cell force spectroscopy.