Human papillomavirus (HPV) as the main cause of cervical and other related cancers: a review

REVIEW IntroductionHuman papillomavirus (HPV) is a group of over 100 related viruses, many of which infect the skin and mucous membranes of humans. 1 It is the most common sexually transmitted infection globally, affecting both men and women.HPV is primarily transmitted through direct skin-to-skin contact during sexual activity. 1 While many HPV infections are harmless and clear up on their own without causing symptoms, certain high-risk strains, particularly HPV-16 and HPV-18, can lead to serious health problems, including cervical cancer, as well as cancers of the anus, throat, vulva, vagina, and penis. 1 HPV is not only the most common sexually transmitted infection but also a significant global health concern due to its role in multiple cancers.The high prevalence of HPV, especially in sexually active individuals, underscores the need for robust prevention strategies. 2 Apart from cervical cancer, HPV also contributes to other anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers.Globally, cervical cancer cases are predominantly found in low-and middle-income countries, where vaccination and screening programmes are less established.HPV vaccination is vital to lowering this burden and improving access to vaccines in under-resourced areas is a critical public health goal. 2 Recent studies have expanded on these findings, delving deeper into the mechanisms of HPV-induced carcinogenesis.3 The authors emphasise the importance of vaccination, early detection, and screening to reduce the global impact of HPVassociated cancers, advocating for a broader, population-based approach to prevention. 4 This call for prevention is echoed in subsequent studies, which highlight the evolving understanding of HPV's oncogenic potential in various anatomical sites.4 While HPV infection is widespread, progression to invasive cancer is not immediate and depends on additional tumour-promoting factors.5 This research underscores the importance of understanding these immunological mechanisms to enhance diagnostic accuracy and develop effective immunotherapies for HPV-related malignancies.5 Furthermore, research explores the emerging role of HPV in head and neck cancers, particularly oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC).6 Their findings establish HPV as a significant risk factor for these cancers, distinguishing HPV-positive tumours from HPV-negative ones.This emerging recognition of HPV's role in head and neck cancers calls for a broader examination of its oncogenic potential beyond cervical cancer, particularly in light of increasing OPSCC cases globally.6 These findings collectively highlight the critical importance of vaccination, early detection, and the development of immunotherapies in reducing the global burden of HPV-associated cancers.The literature from 2020 to 2024 reflects a growing recognition of HPV's impact across a range of cancers and underscores the need for comprehensive public health strategies.In addition to its association with cancer, low-risk HPV strains can cause genital warts and other benign lesions.1,2 Preventive measures, such as the HPV vaccine, have proven effective in reducing the risk of infection from the most dangerous strains. 1 Vaccination programmes, alongside routine screening like Pap smears for women, play a crucial role in early detection and prevention of HPV-related diseases.2 A Pap smear is a procedure where cells are removed from the cervix for testing.