Constructing the typology of sportswashing activities: evidence from global football

The term sportswashing has gained prominence, but it remains a vague normative label lacking conceptual grounding. This article addresses the problem by proposing a conceptual typology of sportswashing activities. Drawing on the concept of international stigmatisation and employing prominent case studies in football as its empirical lens, the study constructs a typology of sportswashing activities. Moving beyond regime-type biases, the study repositions sportswashing as a deliberate strategic move employed by actors to counter persistent international stigmatisation. Based on the conditions, a 2 × 2 typology of sportswashing activities is developed according to the level of public scrutiny and the primary subject of the strategy. This article proposes four types of sportswashing activities, classified as organisers, owners, donors, and partners, which were then validated through purposively selected case studies. This research provides a robust analytical tool for examining the complex state-sports nexus in contemporary international relations.