Geoscience of the energy–climate–sustainability nexus: earth system processes, resources, and pathways to a sustainable future

The transition to sustainable energy systems depends fundamentally on Earth system processes, making geoscience central to addressing the interconnected challenges of energy security, climate change, and sustainable development. This review synthesizes current knowledge on how geological, geochemical, hydrological, and biogeophysical processes govern the formation, distribution, and sustainable use of energy resources while influencing climate dynamics and environmental responses. A systematic review of recent peer-reviewed literature was conducted to integrate evidence on fossil fuel systems, renewable energy resources, critical mineral supply chains, and subsurface technologies, including carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), geothermal energy, and underground hydrogen storage. The analysis shows that sustainable energy transitions require an integrated understanding of interactions among the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere rather than treating these systems independently. It further demonstrates that the growing demand for critical minerals and the expansion of subsurface technologies have become key geoscientific challenges that will strongly influence future decarbonization pathways. Emerging approaches, including digital geoscience, artificial intelligence, nature-based solutions, and integrated Earth system modeling, are identified as powerful tools for improving resource assessment, environmental monitoring, and decision-making. Overall, this review highlights that achieving long-term sustainability requires not only decarbonizing energy systems but also strengthening responsible resource governance, advancing circular economy practices, and integrating Earth system processes into energy planning and climate policy. The study provides an interdisciplinary geoscience framework that supports more resilient and sustainable energy transitions.