Morphine nanobiosensors for addiction detection: materials, fabrication, and analytical performance

Morphine nanobiosensors represent a significant innovation in the analytical detection and monitoring of morphine for research, clinical, forensic, and addiction‑detection contexts. This review article covers; materials and nanomaterials used; fabrication protocols and characterization methods. The review explains transduction mechanisms used for morphine sensing, including affinity-based, electrochemical, and optical approaches. It summarizes analytical performance metrics such as linear range, limits of detection/quantification, selectivity versus metabolites and co-medications, response time, reproducibility, and sample-matrix effects, and compares methods with validation against GC–MS and LC–MS. It also covers integration with portable electronics and data systems, and practical deployment challenges including matrix effects, stability, calibration transfer, fouling, and regulatory/quality-assurance considerations. Overall, as this is a review article, the novelty lies in providing a structured comparative assessment of morphine nanobiosensors across transduction mechanisms such as affinity-based, electrochemical, and optical and explicitly linking analytical performance trends (linear range/LOD/LOQ, selectivity, response time, reproducibility, and matrix effects) to key experimental variables such as nanomaterial architecture and assay format. Unlike prior reviews that focus mainly on describing individual sensing schemes, this work synthesizes the available evidence to highlight where performance improvements consistently originate (principally from nanostructured interfaces and signal-amplification strategies), and it identifies the most critical gaps particularly the lack of cross-laboratory validation, limited stability/reproducibility reporting, and insufficient method comparisons under clinically relevant interfering conditions, so clarifying real targets for future research and translational studies.