Deformation imaging and rotational mechanics in neonates: a guide to image acquisition, measurement, interpretation, and reference values

Fig. 1. Principles of deformation. Longitudinal strain refers to the change in length of a segment from its baseline length in end-diastole to its deformed shape in systole. Strain refers to the degree of change in shape relative to the baseline and is expressed in %. Shortening reflects negative values and lengthening positive values. In this image, shortening of the mid-segment of the LV free wall is illustrated

Fig. 2. Strain and strain curves in one cardiac cycle in the ventricle. a Strain usually peaks during end-systole at aortic valve closure (AVC) and returns to baseline during diastole at mitral valve closure (MVC). b Strain rate usually peaks in mid-systole and returns to baseline at AVC when no deformation occurs. During diastole, the rate of strain returning to baseline is biphasic. MVO mitral valve opening, AVO aortic valve closure, SRe early diastolic strain rate, SRa late diastolic strain rate (during atrial contraction)

Fig. 3. LV deformation. LV deformation occurring in three directions; L longitudinal, C circumferential, R radial

Fig. 4. The relationship between loading conditions and deformation parameters. There is a negative relationship between strain and systemic vascular resistance (a surrogate of afterload) but a positive relationship between strain and left ventricle end-diastolic diameter (a surrogate of preload). Note the lack of relationship between systolic strain rate and loading measures (data set from ref. 26)

Fig. 5. Difference in velocity between two points along the long axis of the septum. The curves show tissue velocities by tissue Doppler during the cardiac cycle. The point closer to the base (yellow) has a higher systolic and diastolic velocity when compared with the point closer to the base (green). The difference in velocity is used to calculate strain rate and derive strain of that segment bordered by the two points

Fig. 6. Offline measurement of SR and strain using tissue Doppler. The sector width should be narrowed to increase the frame rate. The basal segment of the wall is usually interrogated to obtain SR and strain values. The ROI dimensions (length and width) are set by the operator. Strain length is also set while ensuring that the borders of the segment are not in contact with artifact or atrial tissue. The ROI can be moved slightly along the wall to obtain a clean and noise-free SR and strain curve (see Fig. 7)

Fig. 7. An example of clear and artifact-free strain and strain rate curves over three cardiac cycles. Note the timing of events within the cardiac cycle. Strain peaks at end-systolic at aortic valve closure (AVC) and systolic strain rate peaks in mid-systole between aortic valve opening (AVO) and AVC

Fig. 8. 2D Speckle Tracking Echocardiography. Speckles are acoustic back scatter that form a unique pattern within the myocardial walls. Those can be tracked throughout the cardiac cycle to derive deformation measurements. In this apical 3-chamber view of the LV, the myocardial walls are divided into segments and deformation parameters are presented individually for each segment to determine regional function. In addition, deformation for the whole region of interest is used to determine global function

Fig. 9. Segmental strain in the three apical planes of the LV and a summary in a “Bullseye” pattern. Global longitudinal strain (often referred to as GLS) is the peak value in a compound curve made from the region of interest from the three planes

Fig. 10. Strain and strain rate curves from the LV four-chamber view and the RV free walls. The colored lines represent the deformation values from each segment and the dotted white line represents the values from the whole region of interest. Notice the relative increased level of noise in the strain rate curves (see text)

Fig. 11. Left ventricle rotational mechanics. a Basal rotation occurs in a clockwise direction (negative) and b Apical rotation occurs in an anti-clockwise direction (positive). c The net effect of the opposing rotations is called Twist. d The speed at which twist occurs is called twist rate (LVTR) and the speed at which untwist occurs is called untwist rate (LVUTR)