Recycling of spent lithium iron phosphate batteries–a review of processes, economics, and carbon footprint

With the increasing adoption of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries in electric vehicles and stationary energy storage, the development of efficient and sustainable recycling strategies has become a critical priority. This review provides a comprehensive and LFP-specific analysis of the three principal recycling routes: pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and direct recycling. It highlights key advancements in regenerating LFP cathodes, focusing on techniques such as lithiation, calcination, and the use of innovative leaching agents including organic acids and deep eutectic solvents (DES). Comparative electrochemical performance metrics of regenerated cathodes are compiled and evaluated to identify the most promising process conditions. The review further addresses the technical, economic, and operational barriers to industrial-scale deployment, such as standardization challenges, safety concerns during manual disassembly, and the low intrinsic value of LFP materials. A dedicated life cycle assessment (LCA) section compares the environmental impacts, carbon footprint, water use, energy consumption, and toxicity, of pyro-, hydro-, and direct recycling routes. The review also summarizes current regulatory frameworks, outlines the efforts of leading recycling companies, and presents future directions, including the role of automation, localized recycling infrastructure, and battery design for recyclability. Overall, this review offers a critical resource for guiding research, policy, and industrial innovation in closing the loop for LFP battery materials.