Bi-decadal drought assessment in Northwestern Algeria: Integrating meteorological and remote sensing indices

Drought is an escalating hazard in arid and semi‑arid regions with significant implications for agriculture, ecosystems, and water resources. This study presents a 2003–2023 integrated assessment of meteorological and vegetation-based drought across northwest Algeria, using the Climate Hazards group Infrared Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS) dataset and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) remotely‑sensed products. Meteorological drought was quantified with the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) approximated using standardized precipitation anomalies, at 3‑, 6‑, and 12‑month timescales, whereas vegetation and thermal stress were assessed with MODIS‑derived Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), Temperature Condition Index (TCI), and Vegetation Health Index (VHI). Temporal trends were evaluated using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator, and relationships between precipitation and vegetation were examined with Pearson correlation. We identified recurrent drought episodes in 2007–2009, 2011–2012, and a pronounced dry phase from 2020–2023. Mann–Kendall results indicated widespread drying across all SPI timescales, with 56% of the study area showing significant negative trends at SPI‑3 (mean Sen’s slope = − 0.10 yr⁻ 1 ). Vegetation indices mirrored these changes, with VHI showing substantially more degraded area than improvement (4.89% vs 0.51% of the domain), while VCI and TCI responses were spatially heterogeneous. The correlation analysis showed moderate but statistically significant relationships between SPI and VHI at the short-term scale (SPI-3 vs. VHI, r = 0.567, p = 0.007), followed by SPI-6 ( r = 0.509, p = 0.019), indicating that vegetation response is more strongly associated with short- to medium-term precipitation variability. These results demonstrate the value of combining meteorological and satellite vegetation indices for regional drought monitoring and early warning, and underscore an ongoing shift toward increased aridity with implications for water management and agricultural adaptation.