ε-Viniferin Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammatory Activation in Canine Macrophages by Regulating NF-κB and MAPK Pathways

) levels. The observed cytokine pattern decreased the TNF-α/IL-10 ratio and induced a shift toward an anti-inflammatory cytokine-dominant profile. BAY 11-7082, a pharmacological inhibitor of NF-κB activation, produced similar effects, suggesting that ε-viniferin exerts its anti-inflammatory action partly through the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that ε-viniferin attenuates LPS-induced inflammatory responses in canine macrophages via the suppression of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, highlighting its potential as a nutraceutical for the management of chronic inflammatory conditions in companion animals.