Carbon sequestration and the annual net greenhouse gas balance of paddy fields, and their economic-ecological implications within the framework of sustainable development goals 13, 15

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Paddy fields play a vital role in ensuring food security. However, they also play a significant role in global climate dynamics as both a source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and an ecosystem with the potential to sequester carbon. Therefore, this study aims to estimate the net carbon sequestration of paddy field ecosystems, calculate the annual net greenhouse gas balance of paddy fields, and determine the economic-ecological implications for achieving SDG 13 and SDG 15. The research was conducted in Tarik Sub-district, Sidoarjo Regency, East Java, Indonesia, using a quantitative-descriptive approach. The results show that the total annual emissions of CH 4 and N 2 O were 3.63 t CO 2 e ha −1 yr −1 and 0.72 t CO 2 e ha −1 yr −1 respectively, resulting in total emissions of 4.35 t CO 2 e ha −1 yr −1 . The Net Ecosystem Carbon Balance (NECB) of the paddy fields was 0.59 t C ha −1 , equivalent to 2.17 t CO 2 e ha −1 yr −1 , with an annual net greenhouse gas balance (NetGHG Annual ) of 2.18 t CO 2 e ha −1 yr −1 . These results indicate that paddy fields act as a carbon source, implying an environmental carbon tax liability of IDR65,400 ha −1 yr −1 (equivalent to USD3.67 ha −1 yr −1 ). These findings also have implications for achieving SDGs 13 and 15 through the optimization of fertilizer dosage and timing without compromising productivity, the proportional return of straw and organic matter in line with land management practices, and the use of a periodic irrigation system to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, there is a need to integrate climate balance considerations into sustainable land management practices.