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Energy and greenhouse effect emission analysis in small-scale rice cultivation: a case study in Tulungagung, Indonesia

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Analysis shows high GHG emissions and low energy efficiency in rice cultivation, suggesting sustainable practices may improve outcomes.

High GHG emissions reached 21,431.6 kg CO2-eq/ha, primarily from fertilizers and pesticides.
Nitrogen-based fertilizers accounted for 96.6% of total energy inputs, raising concerns about sustainability.
Low energy efficiency of 0.61% indicates substantial inefficiencies in the rice farming system.
Recommendations include integrated nutrient management and renewable energy use to enhance sustainability.

Lutfi et al. (2025) studied this question.

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