Environmental and genetic differentiation underlies divergence in phosphorus-acquisition strategies of Embothrium coccineum cultivated on volcanic substrates of contrasting age

) values reached 0.214-0.249. Central seedlings consistently produced more cluster roots and, in the older-aged volcanic substrate, exhibited approximately 30% greater oxalate exudation than Northern and Southern seedlings; citrate was detected only in this population-substrate combination. In contrast, Southern seedlings showed limited cluster-root development but, in the recent-aged volcanic substrate, increased oxalate exudation two- and three-fold relative to Northern and Central seedlings, respectively, while simultaneously increasing foliar P concentration. Northern seedlings exhibited comparatively weak responses to substrate age. Our findings demonstrate that population differentiation in E. coccineum extends to key physiological mechanisms involved in nutrient acquisition and provide new insights into adaptive root function in Proteaceae growing on nutrient-impoverished volcanic soils.