Mortality patterns and drivers of 11 valuable broadleaved tree species of interest for European forest restoration and agroforestry

Land abandonment and the homogenisation of European forests and agricultural land have created an urgent need for restoration strategies that both diversify and revitalise rural landscapes. Valuable broadleaved species offer strong potential for this dual objective, yet their use remains limited due to scarce ecological knowledge, operational challenges, and high early mortality under changing environmental conditions. Using long-term (2001–2024) monitoring data from 5666 trees across 29 plantations spanning a wide range of ecological conditions in NE Spain, this study characterises species-specific mortality trajectories for 11 valuable broadleaved species and identifies the environmental drivers of early and cumulative mortality, with the aim of informing more successful restoration, agroforestry and afforestation efforts in Europe. Early mortality (three years after planting) averaged 9%, and mid-term mortality (around 20 years, i.e. mid-rotation) reached 26%, with substantial variation among species and plantations. Acer campestre , Fraxinus angustifolia , F. excelsior and Pyrus communis showed the lowest mortality, whereas Sorbus domestica , S. torminalis , Acer pseudoplatanus and Juglans regia the highest, and Prunus avium , Celtis australis and J. × intermedia showed intermediate patterns. Although relationships with environmental variables were species-specific, mortality generally increased with higher temperatures and decreased with greater autumn precipitation, highlighting implications for climate change adaptation. By leveraging a robust mid-term dataset, this study provides a uniquely comprehensive evaluation of broadleaf species performance over more than two decades. The findings offer practical guidance for restoration and agroforestry planning and contribute valuable empirical evidence to support the diversification and climate adaptation of Mediterranean and temperate landscapes.