Adapting Instruction for Inclusion: Policy, Practice, and the Educational Outcomes of Children with Disabilities in West Arsi Zone, Ethiopia

Despite progressive policies, inclusive education (IE) in Ethiopia remains largely symbolic, with children with disabilities (CwDs) experiencing low academic achievement, limited participation, and social marginalization. Instructional adaptations (IAs) are critical for translating policy into meaningful classroom practice, yet evidence on their effectiveness in Ethiopian primary schools is scarce. This study examined how IE policies and IAs influence educational outcomes of CwDs in public primary schools in the West Arsi Zone, Ethiopia. A mixed embedded design was employed, integrating quantitative surveys of 337 teachers across 120 schools with qualitative interviews involving educators, administrators, parents, and students. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, regression, and mediation analysis, while qualitative data were thematically coded to contextualize findings. Findings revealed weak implementation of instructional adaptations (M = 1.93), low educational outcomes (M = 2.25), and very low policy practices (M = 1.69). Regression analysis showed that policy practices significantly predicted IAs (β = .367, p < .001) and educational outcomes (β = .509, p < .001). Mediation analysis confirmed that IAs partially mediated the relationship between policy and outcomes (indirect effect B = .108, 95% CI [.068, .153]). Qualitative evidence reinforced these results, highlighting symbolic promotion, poor academic mastery, and limited adaptation beyond lower grades/schools with resources. IE in Ethiopia is constrained by weak policy enforcement, inadequate teacher awareness, and resource shortages, resulting in nominal rather than substantive inclusion. Strengthening teacher competence in Universal Design for Learning (UDL), individualized education plans (IEPs), and adaptive technologies, alongside robust policy monitoring and resource allocation, is essential to ensure meaningful practices of IAs, participation and equitable learning outcomes for CwDs.