Microbially Produced Imidazole Propionate Is Associated With Heart Failure and Mortality

Figures

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  FIGURE 1. Imidazole Propionate in Individuals With Cardiovascular Diseases in the European Cohort (A) Serum levels of imidazole propionate in individuals without CVD and HF (n = 1,569), with CVD (n = 282), and with HF (n = 134). P values were calculated using Kruskal-Wallis H test, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. (B) Serum levels of imidazole propionate according to percentage of LVEF; P values were calculated with linear regression model after adjustment for risk factors and other baseline covariates: age, sex, BMI, ethnicity, diabetes status, smoking status, systolic blood pressure, use of statins, serum levels of HDL, LDL, triglycerides, and eGFR). BMI = body mass index; CVD = cardiovascular disease; eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; HF = heart failure; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; LVEF = left ventricular ejection fraction.

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  FIGURE 2. Imidazole Propionate in Individuals With Cardiovascular Diseases in the North American Cohort (A) Serum levels of imidazole propionate in individuals without CVD and HF (n = 417), with CVD (n = 1,331), and with HF (n = 407) (P values were calculated using Kruskal-Wallis H test, ***P < 0.001). (B) Serum levels of imidazole propionate according to percentage of LVEF (P values were calculated with linear regression model after adjustment for risk factors and other baseline covariates: age, sex, BMI, ethnicity, diabetes status, smoking status, systolic blood pressure, use of statins, circulating levels of HDL, LDL, triglycerides, and eGFR). Abbreviations as in Figure 1.

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  FIGURE 3. Serum Imidazole Propionate Levels Affect Survival in the North American Cohort (A) Serum levels of imidazole propionate levels among patients alive (Yes; n = 1,909) or not (No; n = 246) at 5-year follow-up (FU). P values were calculated using Mann-Whitney-U-test). Kaplan-Meier estimates (B) and Forrest plot (C) the risk of all-cause mortality at 5-year follow-up according to quartiles (Q) of imidazole propionate. The 5% to 95% CI is indicated by line length. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. See Supplemental Table 5.