Socioeconomic inequalities and spatial dependence in multidimensional household water–energy–food nexus deprivation in Malawi

Access to safe drinking water, modern energy and adequate food is fundamental to household well-being, yet many households in Malawi continue to experience overlapping deprivations across these essential resources. Although water, energy and food systems are inherently interdependent, evidence on the distribution, socioeconomic inequality and spatial patterning of multidimensional household water-energy-food (WEF) deprivation remains limited. Using nationally representative data from 11,434 households in the 2019–2020 Malawi Integrated Household Survey, this study examined household WEF access, socioeconomic inequalities, and the spatial structure of multidimensional deprivation. A Household WEF Access Index was constructed from indicators of improved drinking-water access, modern cooking energy use, and adequate food consumption. The Erreygers Concentration Index was used to assessed socioeconomic inequality, while spatial dependence was examined using Enumeration Area-level spatial econometric models. Improved drinking-water access was high (88.7%), whereas access to modern cooking energy was extremely low (1.2%), making energy deprivation the dominant constraint within the household WEF nexus. Overall, only 1.1% of households had simultaneous access to all three WEF dimensions, while 54.0% experienced deprivation in at least two dimensions and 7.0% were deprived in all three. Multidimensional WEF deprivation was concentrated among poorer households (ECI = −0.548), with prevalence declining from 86.9% among the poorest households to 20.2% among the richest. Significant spatial clustering was observed (Moran's I = 0.445, p < 0.001), with deprivation hotspots concentrated across much of the Central Region and parts of the Southern Region. The Spatial Lag model provided the best fit, indicating that local poverty concentration remained the strongest predictor of area-level deprivation even after accounting for spatial spillovers. These findings demonstrate that household WEF deprivation in Malawi is multidimensional, socially unequal and geographically clustered. Addressing these interconnected vulnerabilities requires integrated policies that simultaneously reduce poverty, expand clean energy access, strengthen food security, and target geographically deprived areas.