Altitudinal gradients and drivers of ecosystem services under changing landscapes in the Himachal Himalaya

This is the authors' abstract. We don't add key points for this paper.

Context The mountainous region accounts for around one-fourth of the terrestrial ecosystem, hosts 12% of the world's population, and contains more than half of the world's biodiversity hotspots. Most of the research relies on primary datasets to inform the assessment of relationships between ecosystem services in the Himalaya. This study quantified the gradient characteristics, spatiotemporal distributions, trade-offs, and synergies at multiple scales, and identified the driving factors for different ecosystem services in the Satluj River basin of the Himachal Himalaya from 1996 to 2023. The results showed significant regional heterogeneity of ecosystem services. The water yield value was 897.08 mm in 1996, 875.32 mm in 2011, and 886.22 mm in 2023. The total Carbon Storage (CS) value increased by 8.03 g C/m 2 in 2011 and 17.98 g C/m 2 in 2023 compared to 1996. The improvement in habitat quality value was 0.11 over the last three decades. Integrated value Ecosystem Services (ESs) have increased above 3000 m in the high-altitude Z3 and Z4 regions of the study area over time. The relationship between habitat quality and carbon storage showed a strong synergy. The leading drivers of ecosystem services in the Satluj River basin were precipitation (PRE), elevation, and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI). Vegetation expansion had the greatest impact on the synergy between habitat quality and other ecosystem services at multiple scales. The highly significant synergy relationships among ESs were observed at altitudes of 1500–3000 m, PRE of 900–1050 mm, and NDVI values of 0.3–0.5. This study provides meaningful insights for decision-making of sustainable development and ecosystem management in the Himalaya.