Policy approaches to Russian language education across Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Latvia: a comparative analysis

This study examines and compares policy approaches to Russian language education across Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Latvia, currently independent states, but formerly under Soviet rule and subject to Russification. Using post-colonial and sociolinguistic theory in addition to thematic analysis of 12 laws and policy documents, the study reveals three distinct trajectories reflecting differing geopolitical orientations toward Russian. All three promote titular national languages for nation-building. Beyond this, Latvia eliminates Russian through policies favoring EU languages (rejection) and promoting Latvian; Georgia maintains balanced minority language accommodation, without explicitly mentioning Russian, while strengthening Georgian (ambivalence); Kazakhstan promotes Russian alongside Kazakh and English through trilingual and more recently multilingual education (managed promotion). While addressing historical linguistic hegemonies, some policies risk creating new exclusions, highlighting tensions between minority rights and decolonial aspirations.