A comprehensive review of genetic diversity and characterization of mango (Mangifera indica L.) germplasm in Asia

Mango ( Mangifera indica L .) is a highly valued tropical and subtropical fruit crop with significant economic, cultural and nutritional importance, particularly in Asia, which serves as the primary centre of origin and diversification. The extensive genetic diversity within Asian mango germplasm underpins adaptation to diverse agro-climatic conditions, variation in fruit quality, and resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses. This review synthesizes current knowledge on mango genetic diversity by integrating morphological, biochemical, physiological, molecular and genome-wide perspectives. Traditional approaches, including morphological assessments and molecular markers such as RAPD, ISSR, AFLP and SSR have provided basic insights into genetic relationships and population structure, though their resolution is limited for modern breeding applications. Recent advances in next-generation sequencing, including SNP analysis, whole-genome resequencing, and transcriptomics, have enabled high-resolution characterization of mango diversity, revealing domestication patterns, adaptive variation and genomic regions associated with agronomic traits. The influence of factors such as cross-pollination, polyembryony, environmental adaptation and human-mediated selection is also discussed. This review highlights gaps in current knowledge and outlines strategies for effective conservation, utilization and genome-assisted improvement of mango genetic resources in Asia, providing a contemporary framework for sustainable mango breeding and biodiversity management.