Educational productivity in high-performing systems: a comparison of Hong Kong and Singapore on PIRLS 2021

Background Reading achievement is a critical educational outcome with long-term implications for students’ academic and social development. While both Hong Kong and Singapore consistently perform at high levels in international assessments, most existing research has examined these systems independently. Few studies have directly compared how student, family, and school factors operate across these two top-performing Asian systems. This study addresses that gap by exploring contextual factors related to reading achievement within Walberg’s theory of educational productivity. By identifying both shared and distinctive patterns, the study aims to inform local policy efforts and provide insights for other systems seeking to improve reading outcomes. Methods Data were drawn from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study 2021. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was conducted separately for Hong Kong and Singapore to examine the contributions of variables across four domains: student characteristics, student attitudes and behaviors, family background, and school context. HLM accounts for the nested structure of students within schools, allowing for accurate estimation at both the student and school levels. Results Predictors of reading achievement were identified across all domains. Absenteeism was associated with lower reading scores in both systems, while higher reading confidence and more frequent reading outside school were linked to better performance. The comparison between Hong Kong and Singapore showed different patterns in how family and school factors related to literacy outcomes. A stronger socioeconomic background was associated with better reading performance, with a larger estimated coefficient in Singapore. In Singapore, parental reading habits, parental perceptions of schooling, and schools’ emphasis on academic success were all positively related to reading achievement. In contrast, these relationships were weak or nonsignificant in Hong Kong. Conclusions This study examines reading achievement through a multilevel lens across education systems. Both systems face challenges such as absenteeism and require stronger support structures. It remains important for both systems to continue narrowing performance gaps between privileged and underprivileged students by promoting deeper equity in education and encouraging more coordinated family–school collaboration to enhance reading achievement.