Psychological Outcomes and Correlates Associated with Over-Reliance on Artificial Intelligence Tools: An Integrative Review

The growing use of artificial intelligence (AI) has raised concerns about over-reliance and its psychological implications. This integrative review synthesised psychological outcomes and correlates associated with AI over-reliance and examined its conceptualisation and measurement. The review included 28 studies identified through database and citation searching. AI over-reliance was associated with depression, anxiety, psychological distress, and cognitive disengagement, while findings concerning well-being and self-related functioning, including self-efficacy and autonomy, were mixed and context-dependent. Evidence concerning social or relational functioning was particularly limited, with only one included study directly examining this domain as an outcome. Most evidence was cross-sectional and therefore did not establish temporal direction or causality. Notably, the only longitudinal study found that depression and anxiety predicted subsequent AI dependence, whereas dependence did not predict later depression or anxiety, suggesting that psychological distress may precede dependence. No consensus definition or measure emerged; studies examined reliance, psychological dependence, problematic or compulsive use, and addiction-like engagement. AI over-reliance is therefore best understood as an overarching, multidimensional concept. These findings highlight the need for clearer conceptual boundaries, standardised measurement, and longitudinal and experimental research. PROSPERO CRD420251038303.