Next-generation pathways for rapid graphene synthesis: Mechanisms, structural control, and energy storage applications

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Over the past decade, the pursuit of rapid, scalable, and cost-effective graphene synthesis strategies has intensified, driven primarily by graphene's exceptional structural, electrical, and thermal properties, which underpin its transformative potential in energy storage, electronics, and sensing. However, conventional synthesis methods (e.g., chemical vapor deposition [CVD] and exfoliation) suffer from inherent bottlenecks, including high mass-production costs and limited scalability, making rapid, energy-efficient, and scalable graphene manufacturing an increasingly critical priority to meet the accelerating demand for high-performance carbon materials. This review systematically examines three emerging non-conventional synthesis platforms, direct laser writing (DLW), Joule heating (JH), and atmospheric-pressure plasma (APP) and highlights their distinctive advantages (e.g., rapid processing, feedstock versatility, intrinsic process intensification) and inherent limitations relative to conventional CVD and exfoliation routes. A unified mechanistic analysis is presented, focusing on localized thermofluidic behavior, ultrafast nonequilibrium carbon transformations, defect evolution pathways, and graphitic domain formation across these techniques. Structure–property correlations relevant to energy storage devices, including supercapacitors and various battery systems, are systematically discussed. The review further highlights key challenges in achieving process uniformity, mechanistic predictability, and industrial scalability, while outlining timely opportunities for advancing these methods through integration with emerging reactor concepts, sustainable carbon feedstocks, and hybrid manufacturing strategies. Collectively, these insights position DLW, JH, and APP as promising cornerstones for next-generation rapid graphene synthesis, and this work aims to provide a comprehensive perspective to inspire innovations in process design and mechanistic understanding.