A face from the pre-Columbian Caribbean: methodological pipeline for 3D facial approximation of an individual with intentional cranial modification

Forensic facial approximation methods are implemented in bioarchaeology to visualise the appearances of individuals from the past. This study introduces the first three-dimensional (3D) facial approximation of a pre-Columbian individual from the Caribbean, and specifically from Cuba, with intentional cranial modification (ICM). The research team designed a pipeline based on verified methods and documented the steps followed to produce the facial approximation. A detailed digital model of a pre-Columbian skull was created using high-resolution structured-light scans. Biological profile and ICM type were determined. The workflow followed standardised approximation methods to predict soft-tissue thickness and morphological facial features, while photos of Native-descendant Cuban populations were additionally considered. The final model was sculpted and textured with professional 3D modelling and digital illustration software to achieve a realistic representation. Research results suggest that the skull corresponds to an adult female with fronto-occipital ICM. Morphological indicators informed the reconstruction of a rectangular face with prominent cheekbones, a broad nose, and a subtle cleft chin. Eye placement followed anatomical parameters, and lip projection reflected maxillary prognathism for thicker lips. Ear positioning adhered to craniofacial standards; pigmentation and hair colour values were based on genetic studies of modern-day Native American populations. The final model was rendered with controlled lighting to achieve a portrait-like appearance, balancing anatomical fidelity and visual realism. Despite the methodological limitations of facial approximations, the results obtained expand understanding of the identities of pre-Columbian people in the Caribbean, and of their human history and cultural evolution in the Americas. This project goes beyond giving a face to a pre-Columbian individual: it opens a window to expand the value of bioarchaeological museum collections for both the general public and researchers in this field. Ultimately, the objective is to contribute to the increasing efforts to decolonise museum narratives, ethically representing a face from Caribbean past populations.