Triboelectric nanogenerators for wave energy harvesting and self-powered marine applications

As the global energy transition intensifies, wave energy has attracted growing attention as a renewable resource owing to its broad distribution and high energy density. However, the widespread deployment of conventional wave energy converters (WECs) remains hindered by limited energy capture efficiency, mechanical complexity, and poor tolerance to harsh ocean environments. Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), which rely on contact electrification and electrostatic induction, have emerged as one of the promising options for wave energy harvesting because of their simple structure, broad material selection, and high sensitivity to low-frequency mechanical excitation. Existing reviews have mainly summarized TENG materials, individual device architectures, or specific marine applications. However, an application-oriented synthesis that links wave-excitation characteristics, structural design, hybridization strategies, and the requirements of self-powered marine systems remains limited. To address this gap, this review systematically examines the development of TENG-based wave energy harvesting alongside conventional WECs, and summarizes the operating mechanisms, representative structural configurations, and application strategies of TENGs. It comparatively evaluates standalone and hybrid TENG systems in terms of output characteristics, operating range, structural complexity, and application suitability. In addition, the review connects wave energy harvesting with self-powered marine sensing, environmental monitoring, wireless communication, and ocean Internet of Things applications, thereby identifying the key barriers to practical deployment and future research priorities.