Beyond yield: How regenerative practices in rain-fed almond systems deliver ecological, social and economic gain

Context Rainfed woody crops in the Mediterranean are deeply embedded in and well-adapted to local socio-ecological conditions. These agroecosystems have the potential to provide a range of ecosystem services (ES), including flood and erosion control, drought mitigation, biodiversity enhancement, and preservation of cultural identity. However, it is well established that certain past and current agricultural practices have contributed to land degradation in these environmentally fragile areas. Regenerative agricultural practices have emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate degradation on agricultural lands, while also enhancing both ES delivery and economic sustainability. Objective This study assesses the impact of regenerative agriculture practices in rain-fed almond systems on ES, economic performance, and how it interacts with the current EU environmental regulation, from different stakeholder perspectives. Methods The research draws on data collected from five farms in SE Spain, where long- and medium-term monitoring was conducted across three agricultural practices: (i) conventional management, (ii) natural cover crops, and (iii) seeded cover crops. Data on several soil health indicators, plant biomass and richness, and harvest outcomes were collected in the field along with social and economic information gathered through interviews and 184 surveyors. The agricultural practices were assessed using an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating socio-ecological indicators that represented ES and economic performance. The methods included using value and content analysis, as well as multicriteria analysis (MCA), incorporating perspectives from diverse stakeholder groups. Results and conclusions Both natural and seeded cover-crop systems consistently outperformed conventional management across all five farms and under every stakeholder perspective. On average, cover crop practices enhanced the performance of conventional management in terms of ES and economic viability by 44–51%. Specifically, natural and seeded cover crops enhanced supporting (e.g. habitat and soil fertility) and cultural (e.g. traditional knowledge, cultural heritage) ecosystem services by 60–81% and 126–142% , respectively. Economic indicators also improved under cover-crop systems, with an average increase of 120–147 %. Notably, the additional costs associated with implementing cover crops were fully offset by the current CAP National Strategic Plan payments. Significance These findings shed light on the wide range of integrated benefits that locally-adapted regenerative practices can have to manage rainfed woody crops in fragile environmental conditions. In addition, it showcases EU environmental regulation's outcomes on the field and assesses how two different cover-crops strategies perform against each other and against the conventional management of rain-fed woody crops.