Bridging Gaps in Panthera leo Ethograms: A Systematic Review and Adaptable Model for Animal Welfare Research

Lions (Panthera leo) are keystone predators and an iconic species for wildlife conservation. Understanding their behaviour is critical for effective conservation strategies and for ensuring animal welfare in human-managed environments. Ethograms—systematic descriptions of behavioural repertoires—are essential tools for observing, recording, and analysing animal behaviour. Although numerous ethograms have been developed for lions, the lack of standardization and variability in content hinder comparative research and welfare assessment. This study aimed to develop a comprehensive ethogram for lions, based on a systematic review of published sources (following PRISMA guidelines), critical examination of definitions, and video-based observations of captive individuals. As a result, we propose a new ethogram comprising 83 behavioural patterns grouped into 13 functional categories: affiliative (10), aggressive (2), agonistic (7), environment-directed (9), fear-related (2), feeding (9), locomotor (8), maintenance (5), marking (5), potentially stereotypic (7), reproductive (4), resting (7), and other behaviours (8). This ethogram is designed to be both comprehensive and adaptable, supporting its potential application across diverse research contexts, from behavioural monitoring to welfare evaluations. By advancing standardization in behavioural terminology and structure, this work provides a basis for more consistent and comparable data in ethological studies, ultimately supporting evidence-based decision-making in the management and welfare of captive lions.