Partners or pariahs? Unpacking NGO–state engagement in policymaking in Bangladesh

This study explores NGO–state engagement in policymaking in Bangladesh, drawing on 13 key informant interviews and document analysis across the health, education, and urban development sectors. Policy influence is operationalised as NGOs’ capacity to shape policy discourse, gain access to formal decision-making, and embed recommendations in policy content. Findings reveal that NGOs combining insider and outsider strategies exert greater influence, particularly in health and education, while donor dependency, political resistance, and restrictive regulations constrain impact in rights-based domains. Building on Hossain et al. (Citation2018) and Khan (Citation2026) on managed pluralism, this study advances the Pluralist Pathways Model (PPM), an original analytical framework synthesised from the empirical findings rather than a pre-existing named model, to capture structural inequalities governing access to policymaking arenas. The study highlights the need for more equitable partnerships and offers practical insights for inclusive policymaking in Bangladesh and comparable Global South contexts.