Hydrogeochemical characteristics and groundwater quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purposes in the rural areas of Gombe, Nigeria

Groundwater (GW) is a vital resource for drinking and irrigation, yet it faces increasing pollution risks from anthropogenic activities. This study assessed the hydrogeochemical characteristics and quality of GW for drinking and irrigation purposes in Kwami, Gombe State, Nigeria, to evaluate its suitability for drinking and irrigation. A total of 108 GW samples were collected and analyzed for hydrogeochemical parameters, including pH major ions (Ca 2+ , SO 4 2− , Mg 2+ , Cl − , K + , HCO 3 − , Na + , NO 3 − ) and irrigation indices (SAR, KR, MAR, RSC). The collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The results indicated a slightly alkaline pH with dominant cations (Ca 2+ > Mg 2+ > K + > Na + ) and anions (SO 4 2− > Cl − > NO 3 − > HCO 3 − > PO 4 3− ). The multivariate analysis related pollution to both natural (rock weathering) and anthropogenic (agricultural runoff) sources. Piper’s diagram identified Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , and SO 4 2− , Cl − as predominant water type, while the Gibbs plot emphasized that rock weathering was the primary natural influence. Irrigation indices confirmed the suitability for agriculture, and Water Quality Index (WQI) classified GW as excellent to good for drinking. Despite the overall good quality, continuous monitoring is recommended to detect future changes in the water quality and mitigate the potential anthropogenic impact.