A novel barrier-based tri-hybrid robust nonlinear control of battery–supercapacitor electric vehicles: Validation under multiple driving cycles

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are increasingly being adopted as sustainable alternatives to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. However, the operational performance of BEVs is heavily dependent upon the reliable operation of energy storage systems, involving inherent nonlinear converter dynamics, under diverse operating conditions, such as varying speed profiles and uneven terrain. In this regard, this work proposes a novel barrier-based tri-hybrid nonlinear control strategy, termed non-singular fast terminal barrier-based supertwisted synergetic integral backstepping control (NFTB-SSIBS) for the robust and efficient operation of converter-dominated battery–supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system in BEVs. The performance of the proposed controller is first evaluated using an extensive set of simulations and then in real-time through controller hardware-in-the-loop (C-HIL) experimental validations across multiple driving profiles. The controller parameters are optimized using the whale optimization algorithm (WOA) with the integral time absolute error (ITAE) criterion, and a rule-based energy management algorithm is employed to ensure effective power balance and precise voltage regulation in the system. The dynamic response of the proposed controller is also compared against state-of-the-art nonlinear control strategies, including Lyapunov function control (LFC), sliding mode control (SMC), backstepping sliding mode control (BS-SMC), and integral backstepping supertwisting control (IBS-STSMC). The results demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed control strategy, achieving zero steady-state error (LRC: 1.3 V, SMC: 0.27 V, BS-SMC: 0.01 V, IBS-STSMC: 0.008 V), chattering-free response, zero initial overshoot (LRC: 0 V, SMC: 8.7 V, BS-SMC: 49.5 V, IBS-STSMC: 12.7 V), reduced transient deviations, and a faster settling time of 8 ms (LRC: 170 ms, SMC: 80 ms, BS-SMC: 130 ms, IBS-STSMC: 50 ms). The robustness of the controller is further validated under monotonically increasing sinusoidal disturbances and white Gaussian noise through effective DC-link voltage regulation.