Biology of the Families of Diptera (Arthropoda: Insecta): An Integrative Review

Diptera comprises one of the most ecologically diverse insect orders, with families occupying terrestrial, freshwater, semiaquatic, coastal, synanthropic, and highly specialized habitats. This integrative review synthesizes the biology and ecology of 142 Diptera families using a standardized family-level framework focused on life cycle, larval and adult feeding, breeding substrates, host and plant associations, oviposition, development, pupation, behavior, reproduction, habitat use, natural enemies, ecological functions, applied importance, and knowledge gaps. Literature published primarily from 2017 to 2026 was prioritized, while earlier sources were retained when indispensable for poorly documented families. Evidence was evaluated separately for immature and adult stages to avoid inferring larval biology from adult occurrence or collection locality alone. The synthesis reveals extensive trophic diversity, including saprophagy, detritivory, fungivory, phytophagy, predation, parasitoidism, hematophagy, coprophagy, carrion feeding, filter feeding, grazing, and mixed strategies. Diptera families contribute substantially to decomposition, nutrient cycling, pollination, biological control, aquatic–terrestrial energy transfer, and food-web dynamics, while others include important agricultural pests, disease vectors, myiasis agents, veterinary pests, and forensic indicators. Marked differences in biological knowledge persist among families, particularly for larval ecology, oviposition, developmental duration, reproductive behavior, host relationships, natural enemies, and quantitative ecological effects. By organizing available evidence consistently across families, this review provides a comparative framework for understanding functional diversity within Diptera and highlights where biological interpretations remain uncertain. The resulting synthesis supports ecological comparison, applied entomology, conservation assessment, and future research aimed at closing persistent family-level knowledge gaps across the order. It also emphasizes the separation created by metamorphosis, because larvae and adults often occupy different niches, use different resources, and perform distinct ecosystem functions. This distinction is essential for interpreting family-level biology accurately and for avoiding unsupported generalizations across life stages.