AI acceptance in religious literacy: educational implications for epistemic verification and scholarly authority in higher education

This study examines cross-national differences in students’ use of artificial intelligence (AI) for religious literacy, epistemic verification, and perceptions of religious authority. A cross-sectional, quantitative-dominant embedded mixed-methods design involved 348 Muslim undergraduates from Indonesia (n=120), Malaysia (n=96), and Uzbekistan (n=132). An online questionnaire collected Likert-scale responses and open-ended answers. Quantitative analyses employed descriptive statistics, Kruskal–Wallis tests, Dunn–Bonferroni comparisons, and epsilon-squared effect-size estimates, while 876 statements underwent thematic analysis. Both strands were analyzed separately and integrated during interpretation. Significant cross-national differences with large effect sizes emerged across all three constructs. Indonesian students reported the highest AI use, Malaysian students demonstrated the strongest epistemic verification, and both samples showed comparable perceptions of religious authority. Uzbekistani students reported lower and more variable scores. Qualitative findings suggest that AI primarily served as an initial cognitive assistant, with outputs subject to verification and negotiation with established religious scholarship. The findings highlight the need for context-sensitive higher education that strengthens epistemic literacy, source evaluation, and responsible engagement with AI-generated religious knowledge. These educational priorities may inform broader discussions of quality education relevant to SDG 4.