Tracing lead white sources in central European drawings from the 15th to 19th centuries using lead isotope analysis

This study reports lead isotope ratios of lead white sampled from 26 drawings produced in the German-speaking regions of central Europe, dating from the 15th to the 19th century. The analysis identified four isotopically distinct types of lead white. Two correspond to well-documented production types, namely Dutch and Venetian lead white, while two additional types are newly recognised. Both newly identified types occur along the Antwerp–Cologne–Nuremberg–Augsburg–Venice trade corridor. One shows isotopic affinities with sources in the Massif Central in France or the Achselalpe region in Austria, while the other is linked to the Nordwesteifel deposits in Germany. Although both types appear in the same cities, one is found predominantly in later drawings, indicating a chronological shift in lead supply along this route. The study of lead isotope ratio data, together with the provenance of the lead ore and the location of use of these two types of lead white, suggests that they may have been produced in or supplied through Venice and traded across Europe. The results presented in this study provide new insight into the trade and distribution of lead white in Europe, and show how this information can be linked to infer the time and place of production of unknown works of art.